Islam in Xinjiang

发布: 2009-9-18 10:27 |  作者: onechinagogogo |   来源: 本站原创 |  查看: 1691次

Xinjiang, an ancient gateway between the East and the West , hub of economic and cultural exchanges for thousand of years,  has always been a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural and multi-religious region of China. Islam was neither the first religion in Xinjiang nor was it the last one to stay. 

Xinjiang, an ancient gateway between the East and the West.

 Home to 47 ethnic groups of China, thirteen of which, the Uighur (维吾尔) , Han (汉) , Kazak ( 哈萨克 ) , Hui (回) , Mongolian ( 蒙古) , Kirgiz (柯尔克孜) , Tajik (塔吉克) , Xibe (锡伯族) , Ozbek(乌孜别克) , Manchu ( 满 ) , Daur (达斡尔) , Tatar ( 鞑靼 )  and Russian ( 俄罗斯  )  had been claiming Xinjiang as native hometown for centuries.  

Harvest from the Turfan Grape Valley , Xinjiang

Long before the arrival of Islam, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Taoism, Manichaeism and Nestorianism had all once been dominant religions for inhabitants of that region.  Xinjiang continued to stay as a multi-religious region for a long time after Islam was brought in along the Silk Road. Christianity and Catholicism came in the 18th century.

 

Harvest Season in Xinjiang

The most ancient aboriginal religion in Xinjiang is Shamanism.  Before the 7th century, the Uighurs (维吾尔) , Kazak (哈萨克), Kirgiz (柯尔克孜) and other ethnic groups were mostly Shamanists.  Most of the the Mongols before the 13th century were also Shamanists and it had been a prevailing religion amongst the Manchus before the 17th century.

Their beliefs are mainly animism, ancestor worship and nature worship. The basic feature of Shamanism is that they have no prophet, no doctrine, no organization, no special clergy, no fixed facility for religion purposes.    They worship multiple gods.  The main activity of Shamanism is the sorcerer's dance. In addition, another notable characteristic of Shamanism is that most Shamans are women.

Shamans

"Shaman" is referred to the intermediate person in between human beings and their Creator.  This person is able to transfer people's praying and wishes to God and in return to convey God's wills to human beings as well.

At around 4th century BC,  Zoroastrianism from Persia came to Xinjiang via central Asia and became a hit in Turfan. The Gaochang Regime was there to set up specialized agencies and officials to strengthen the management of Zoroastrianism. 
Buddhism came to Xinjiang from Kashmir, India at around the first century BC. 

A Buddhist Monk traveling in the Western Region.

It received enormous welcome and support by the local rulers. In the Tarim Basin oases, well-known centers of Buddhism including  Yutian, Shule, Qiuci (sound: Autumn term), Gaochang were formed under the ruling classes' vigorous supports.

Taoism was at its height amongst the Hans around the 5th century and was brought along by the Hans who had mostly settled down at places like Turfan and Hami. Taoism was eventually able to spread around the entire Xinjiang in the Ching Dynasty. 

Around 6th century BC,  Manichaeism came to Xinjiang from Persia via Central Asia.  In the mid of the 9th century,  the Uighurs,  whose state religion was still Manichaeism at that time, moved westward to Xinjiang and they had facilitated the promotion and development of Manichaeism.   In Turfan, Uighur Manicheans built temples, dug grottoes, translated scriptures, painted frescoes and spread the Manichean doctrine and culture. 

A Temple of Manichaeism

Nestorianism was introduced to Xinjiang but it was not widespread in its early stages.  Only in  Yuan Dynasty ( 1206 - 1368 ) when a large group of Uighurs had accepted Nesotrianism and did it begin to flourish. 

At the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries, Islam reached the southern part of Xinjiang where Zoroastrianism (拜火教) , Buddhism, Taoism, Manichaeism (魔尼教)  and Nestorianism (景教)  had once spread along the Silk Road.
Devout Buddhists from all over the country, India and Central Asia as well went into the mountains in Xinjiang to create beautiful statues and murals to express their devotion to their religion.

Buddhist Monks traveling in the Western Region

In AD 705,  Qutaibah ibn Muslim ( 屈底波 ) was assigned to be the Governor of Khorasan  (呼罗珊) . After having conquered Balhn (巴里黑) , Bukhara (布哈拉) , Samarkand (撒马尔罕) , Khorezem (花拉子模) such Central Asian regions, by 714, he wrote down the final chapter of his first expedition.   In AD715, he conquered Kashgar  (  喀什 ) and entered deeply into China's hinterland.

After Qutaibah ibn Muslim took over Kokand  (浩罕) in 713 (Islamic calender year 95 ), he continued to march on.

By the end of the year, he invaded Kashgar (喀什)  and accordingly took over Hetian ( 和阗), Aksu (阿克苏 ),  Turfan (吐鲁番) and most part of southern Xinjiang was annexed into the map of Caliph Al-Walid I ( 哈里发瓦里德 ) (668 - 715)

Manichaeism (魔尼教) came from Persia in the mid of 8th century and became the national religion of the Uighurs.   At the same time  Manichaeism was prevailed in Khotan (于阗)  during the Northern Sung Dynasty period (960-1126).  Zoroastrianism and Buddhism both continued to be very well-accepted. 

Later, Buddhism grew and expanded. In Gaochang ( 高昌) 、Ganzhou (甘州)、Kucha (龟兹)、Khotan (于阗),  Buddhism grew, expanded and eventually replaced all other religions to become the most dominated religion in these regions.

Bezeklik Thousand Buddha Caves.




Islam came to Xinjiang at the end of the 10th century and the beginning of the 11th century when it was under the sovereign of  the Kara-Khanid Khanate ( 喀喇汗王朝 )  . It was firstly brought into Kashgar from the Kara-Khanid Khanate ( 喀喇汗王朝 ) , and then to Yel (叶尔) and Khotan (和阗).  At the same time, Islamic influence was gradually moving eastward into Aksu ( 阿克苏) Kuqa (  库车)  from Kashgar ( 喀什噶尔 ) and Khotan ( 和阗).  From Jimsar ( 吉木萨尔  ) to Kashgar, a new Islamic region was formed. 

Mausoleum in Kashgar

By the 13th and 14th century, Urumqi, Turfan,  and nearby regions, Muslims had started to live amongst followers of the Nestorianism (景教) .   At the beginning of the 15th century, the price of Kara-Khanid Khanate was converted to Islam and was renamed to Hassan (哈散).   During the 1530's, people in Hami ( 哈密) under the reign of the Mongolian Khan, started to convert to Islam. By the end of the 15th century, the royal members of Turfan had all become Muslims who praised Allah as the greatest.  At the beginning of the 16th century, the rulers in Hami all submitted to Islam.  The conversion of the ruling class resulted with an enormous impact of converting most of the Uighur civilians to Islam. 

By the Ching Dynasty, southern Xinjiang had been fully converted to Islam.  Though there were a lot of Muslims living in Northern Xinjiang, most of them were subjects of the Mongolian Khanate - Junggar ( 准噶尔部).    In the 18th century, after Emperor Qianlong ( 乾隆) pacified the Junggar Khanate  (准噶尔部), he set up counties, garrisons, and settled the Huis at the north, thus the influence of Islam was able to develop and secure in the northern part of Xinjiang.   Turning to the beginning of the 20th century, northern Xinjiang was almost entirely filled with Muslim population.  It took almost 800 years long for Islam to be spread and developed in Xinjiang before it was overwhelmingly being accepted by most of the Uighur-Chinese.

By the mid of the 10th century, the Islamic Kara-Khanid Khanate ( 喀喇汗王朝 ) raged a series of religious wars, which lasted for more than forty years, against the Buddhist Kingdom Khotan  (于阗).  Eventually it conquered  Yutian ( 于田 )  and collapsed the entire Buddhist Kingdom.   

In the mid of the 14th century, under the mandatory implementation of the Chagatai Khanate (察合台汗国) ,  Islam had gradually  become the principal religion of the Mongols (蒙古) , Uighurs ( 维吾尔 ) , Kazaks (哈萨克) , Kirgizs (柯尔克孜)  and Tajiks (塔吉克) .  

By  the 16th century,  Islam eventually replaced Buddhism as the most popular  religion in Xinjiang.

The gradual disappearance of Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism in Xinjiang made room for Islam to prevail the region.  However, Buddhism and Taoism were still there.  Since the Ming dynasty, Tibetan Buddhism took a great leap forward and became one of the two major religions in Xinjiang. 

By the end of the 17th century,  Islamic Aktaglik Sect ( 伊斯兰教白山派) leaders used the power of Tibetan Buddhism to eliminate their political opponents Karagaghlik  (黑山派 ) , and destroyed the Yarkand Khanate  ( 叶尔羌汗国) 

Yarkand Khanate Tomb

     In the 18th century, Christianity and Catholicism were introduced to Xinjiang. Buddhism, Taoism and Shamanism also made considerable headway.  Followers of these religions built temples and churches all over the north and south Tianshan Mountains.  There were also Muslims converted to Christianity or other religions.

     In China today, religion is separated from State and separated from education system.  While the Chinese Communist Party is atheistic, Chinese nationals are guaranteed with freedom of religions by the Chinese Constitution and state laws. 

Article 36 of China's Constitution

Article 36 of China's Constitution states: " Citizens of the People's Republic of China enjoy freedom of religious belief.  No state department,  public organization or individual may compel citizens to believe or not to believe in any religion; nor may they discriminate against citizens for their personal belief.  The state protects normal religious activities.  The use of religion to engage in activities that disrupt public order, impair the health of citizens or interfere with the educational system of the state is strictly prohibited.  Religious organizations and religious affairs shall not be subjected to any form of foreign domination."  In addition to the Constitution, the country's Criminal Law, Civil Law, Law on Regional National Autonomy, Military Service Law, Law on Compulsory Education,  Electoral Law of the People's Congress and Organizational Law of Village Committees contain special provisions protecting freedom of religious belief and banning discrimination against citizens who choose to believe or not to believe in any religion.  

Chinese Muslim Girls wearing ethnic costumes with pride. 

Unlike in most of the western countries where extremist hatred groups against particular religious groups threatening the tranquility of these religious communities are a norm of life, launching any hatred-campaign in China against any religion is impossible. It will be immediately being crushed by the government. One religious sect openly campaigning against another religious sect is unheard of in China. 

Cheerful Chinese Muslim girls in Xinjiang

     Muslims in China enjoy greater freedom and respects than their brothers and sisters in France where banning, rejection and discrimination against Muslims,  are openly written into the French Laws. French values are legally being imposed upon Muslims in the fancy name of integrity and assimilation.  In China, Muslim women won't be judged by their level of submissive to their male relatives and religion.  Nobody could yank their headscarves before entering a public school.   

                                                                                     Muslim Students in China

        Since the 80's, Chinese Government has enthusiastically devoted to remodel the old mosques and construct new ones in Xinjiang.  Until the end of 1998, Xinjiang already has 24,000 mosques serving as many as 9 million Muslims of the region. 

Grand Mosque in Turfan, Xinjiang

Mosque Beit Abdullah,  in Yining, Xinjiang

Grand Mosque in Kuqa, Xinjiang

             Cradle of the Declaration of the Human Rights,  home to the largest Muslim population of western Europe,  France on the contrary has only five true mosques serving the needs of her Muslim citizens which constitutes as many as 1/10 of the French population.  

The only five true mosques in France are :

Grand Mosque of Évry

Grande mosquée de Lyon

Paris Mosque

Strasbourg Mosque

Uthman Mosque.

The other 1500 religious facilities for Muslims are converted from units of small buildings and flats. 

Seek Knowledge in China

                Islam came to China more than 1,300 years ago.   Today it remains as one of the most important religions not only in Xinjiang but across the country.  The harmonious peaceful co-existence notion founded by ancestors of the Muslims and the Hans remains incorporated as the principals of today's Chinese national policies upon managing the relationship with the ethnic minorities as well as ethnic minorities as well as their religions & beliefs.   While Muslims in France continue to face with bashing, harassment,  state-backed discrimination, humiliations and even personal physical security has always been under threats,  Muslims in China continue to benefit from the success of the Chinese Islamic Revitalization Movement of the past two decades.  

Love Conquers All

Intensive Reading

Intensive Reading

The Intensive Reading Technique is reading for a high degree of comprehension and retention over a long period of time.  It is basically a study technique for organizing readings that will have to be understood and remembered.  Intensive reading is not a careful, single reading, but is a method based on a variety of techniques like scanning, the surveying technique of planning your purpose, and others.

Principle of intensive reading

Overview, purpose, questions, reading, summarize, test, and understanding are the seven procedures that cover the method, for very effective reading for detailed comprehension and long retention.

1. Overview: 

As you get an overview of a long section, you may only survey part and skim the sections that are hard to understand.  From this you should get the general theme and main ideas and the important topics and questions discussed, and the major conclusions. 

2. Planning Purpose: 

Planning your purpose means to take a few seconds before you begin your reading to formalize or clearly state to yourself what you wish to get from the reading.  This will give us the most useful "mental set" for getting the information we need.

3. Question: 

A good time to record questions is after your overview and planning purpose.  The questions should be in the same sequence as they appear in the material, if possible.  This does not prevent adding new questions, but it does prevent forgetting about an important question that occurs to you during the overview.  Ideally, the headings can be converted into questions which will provide a suitable outline of the important information in the selection.  When this is not the case, the basic interrogatives of who, what, when, why and how, frequently supply aid in suggesting important concepts in almost all reading selections.  You have to respond to learn.

4. Reading:  The most familiar technique and the heart of intensive reading are to read carefully and thoughtfully.  Reading here means not only the familiar line-by-line reading, but reading that is guided by our purpose and questions.  Also be sure and read the material you covered while obtaining an overview.
5. Summarizing:  An important part of summarizing is organizing the ideas and supporting points.  This organizing should begin in the reading but should be finalized and expressed in the notes.  Generally, each paragraph will have one or two ideas.  It is important to state in your own words, aloud, the points you wish to remember.  The most effective type of summarizing, which lends itself to both organizing and testing, is an outline of questions reflecting major ideas and concepts.  The sub points are indented to show clearly that they are related to the main point in a supporting role.  By using questions as headings, the outline can be started before reading on the basis of the overview.  It allows the answers to the questions to guide the reading, rather than be automatically summarized as a few brief points.  A topic that does not lend itself to the question style can be included as a statement.

There are other techniques you may use.  One is underlining.  However, its faults tend to outweigh its value.  If you must underline, restrict yourself to clear, concise definitions or statements.  Another technique is marginal notes and questions.  You may (with practice and discretion) elaborate, raise questions, and relate and organize certain important concepts or points in this manner.

6. Testing:  The next step is testing you.  It is vital that you recall rather just recognize the answers.  This means that you test yourself with an essay or a fill-in-the-blank type of test.  This simply means you must "produce" the answer; just as you often have to in class.  This testing seems to "set" or "fix" the information more firmly in your mind so that you will retain it better.  Re-reading and other forms of recognition do not produce as high a level of retention.  This testing may occur after paragraphs, or after sections, or at the end of the selection.  The rule to follow is to deal with closely related thoughts that are not too many for you to consider at one time.

Understanding:  The end product of the steps in intensive reading is to be sure that you understand every important question.  If you omit a point, or answer a question incorrectly, you should go back and review that point immediately.  You may do this by reviewing your summarizing notes, or by re-reading parts of the selection that are not clear, or where the information is scattered, by scanning to locate the forgotten parts.

What is Extansive Reading

Definition of Extensive reading

Extensive Reading usually means reading a lot of self-selected easy, interesting texts, and doing few or no exercises afterwards.

Extensive reading is order to gain a general understanding of what is read. It is intended to develop good reading habits, to build up knowledge of vocabulary and structure, and to encourage a liking for reading. E.g. any interested books, novels, magazines and newspaper reading.

Purposes of Extensive Reading

The purposes of reading are usually related to pleasure, information and general understanding. The purposes are determined by the nature of the material and the interests of the student. Typically ER involves reading massive amounts of very simple material so that the learner can read smoothly, confidently and pleasurably.

Another aspect of ER is that the learner should be reading a wide variety of texts such as novels, mystery, poems etc.

Characteristics of Extensive Reading

Students read as much as possible, perhaps in and definitely out of the classroom.

A variety of materials on a wide range of topics is available so as to encourage reading for different reasons and in different ways.

Students select what they want to read and have the freedom to stop reading material that fails to interest them.

Reading is individual and silent, at the student's own pace, and, outside class, done when and where the student chooses.

Reading speed is usually faster rather than slower as students read books and other material they find easily understandable.

Benefits of Extensive Reading

ER helps develop general, world knowledge.
Most, students have a rather limited experience and knowledge of the world they inhabit both cognitively and affectively. ER opens windows on the world seen through different eyes. This educational function of ER cannot be emphasized enough. Learn new vocabulary and review old vocabulary

It can motivate learners to read

Reading material selected for extensive reading programs should address students' needs, tastes and interests, so as to energize and motivate them to read the books.

ER helps improve writing.
There is a well-established link between reading and writing. Basically, the more we read, the better we write. Commonsense would indicate that as we meet more language, more often, through reading, our language acquisition mechanism is primed to produce it in writing or speech when it is needed. Extensive reading is effective means of fostering improvements in students writing.

It helps to build confidence with extended texts

Classroom reading work has traditionally focused on the exploitation of shorts texts, either for presenting lexical and grammatical points or for providing students with limited practice in various reading skills and strategies. However, a large number of students in the world require reading for academic purposes, and therefore need training in study skills and strategies for reading longer texts and books. Extensive reading is developing students’ confidence and ability in facing these longer texts.





What is the difference between intensive and extensive reading?

Intensive reading - you read with concentration and great care in order to understand exactly the meaning of what you read.
Extensive reading - you read as many different kinds of books/journals/papers as you can, chiefly for pleasure, and only needing a general understanding of the content.

Reading text books (academic) is Intensive reading.
Reading novels, Magazines, Newspapers is extensive reading.

Extensive reading is also referred as passive reading .Intensive or active.

Why do ER? To find better and effective ways for students to enjoy reading and learning through English, where they make more and more of the choices and decisions about what they read and how they read; where they are also guided to reflect on their learning and to set specific goals for themselves, and can make intelligent decisions about how to reach those goals. It excellent way to get students into the habit of reading and it contributes to vocabulary acquisition.

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